Disproportionately high HIV and AIDS incidence
rates for African Americans have been reported nationwide (CDC, 1990; Flora,
MDMH, 2000; Wolitski, Valdiserri, Denning, & Levine, 2001; Wright,
1993). HIV infection and the
resulting AIDS disease are the leading causes of death among Black men between
the ages of twenty-five and forty-four and the second leading cause of death
among Black women in the United States (Boykin, 1997). In 1999, the AIDS incidence rates among
Black men who have sex with other men (MSM) were five times higher than for
White MSM (Wolitski et al., 2001).
In
a ten-year review of the literature pertaining to gay, lesbian, and bisexual
issues, Soto (1997) discovered that less than five-percent of the journal
articles reviewed focused primarily on race or ethnicity. Even less research has been conducted
that explores the interaction between racial and sexual identity development. Scarcer yet are studies that examine
issues related to HIV/AIDS among racial/ethnic minorities. For example, in a literature review
examining 40 articles in 28 journals covering the period from 1988-1993 on
lesbians and gays of color and HIV/AIDS, Kuszelewics and Lloyd (1995) noted a
paucity of research addressing both race and HIV/AIDS adequately. Although further studies on HIV/AIDS
and race have been conducted since 1993, Black gay men are still a difficult
population to locate in the current research literature. This is particularly disconcerting,
given the disproportionately high
rates of HIV/AIDS observed among African Americans. Not surprisingly, there has been a call for research that
explores issues concerning HIV/AIDS among African Americans (e.g., Kuszelewics
& Lloyd, 1995), and particularly among gay African Americans (e.g., Hawkeswood, 1996). Heeding this call, the present study
examined the relationships among attitudes toward HIV/AIDS, and racial and
sexual identity development among Black men who have sex with other men.
Specifically, this study explored the
relationships between fear of AIDS (as measured by the Attitudes Towards AIDS
Scale; ATAS) and racial and sexual identity development (as measured by the
Racial Identity Attitude Scale-B; RIAS-B and the Gay and Lesbian Identity
Attitude Scale; GLIAS, respectively) among a sample of 35 Black men who were at
least 18 years old (M =
33, SD = 7.87) and whose
sexual orientation was toward other men.
Participants were recruited from a midwestern metropolitan area and from
the Internet. In addition to the
measures of interest, participants also completed a socio-demographic
questionnaire. It was hypothesized
that internalization of one’s gay male identity (as measured by the GLIAS)
would be positively correlated with holding accepting attitudes towards
HIV/AIDS (as measured by the ATAS).
A second hypothesis was that internalization of one’s racial identity
(as measured by the RIAS) would be positively correlated with holding more
accepting attitudes towards HIV/AIDS (as measured by the ATAS).
The first hypothesis predicted a negative
correlation between Pre-Encounter attitudes on the GLIAS and ATAS scores and a
positive correlation between Internalization attitudes on the GLIAS and ATAS
scores. As predicted, results
revealed a significant negative correlation between Pre-Encounter and ATAS
scores (r(35) = -.34, p < .05) and a significant positive
correlation between Internalization and ATAS scores (r(35) = .44, p
<.01). The second hypothesis
predicted a negative correlation between Pre-Encounter attitudes on the RIAS-B
and ATAS scores and a positive correlation between Internalization attitudes on
the RIAS-B and ATAS scores.
Results did not support these predictions. However, scores on the Encounter subscale of the RIAS-B were
negatively correlated with ATAS scores (r(35) = -.37, p <.05),
suggesting that those in the Encounter stage of racial identity development
tended to hold less accepting attitudes toward AIDS. There were no significant relationships among ATAS scores and
the socio-demographic variables included in the study (e.g., age, income level,
education level, religious involvement).
Post-hoc analyses revealed positive correlations between (1) RIAS-B
Pre-Encounter and GLIAS Pre-Encounter scores (r(35) = .41, p
<.05), (2) RIAS-B Pre-Encounter and GLIAS Encounter scores (r(35) =
.37, p <.05), and (3) RIAS-B Immersion/Emersion and GLIAS Encounter
scores (r(35) = .41, p <.05).
Findings are consistent with racial identity theory, which suggests
that those in the Encounter stage of racial identity development are likely to
struggle with a mixture of feelings, such as confusion, anxiety, depression,
and anger (Helms, 1990). For
instance, fear regarding AIDS might be an additional factor with which
individuals struggle during this stage.
As suggested by Helms (1990), attitudes during the Encounter stage can
be related to one’s reference-group orientation. This might explain seemingly contradictory findings in
which those in the Encounter stage of sexual identity development tended to
hold more accepting attitudes toward AIDS, whereas those in the Encounter stage
of racial identity development tended to hold less accepting attitudes toward
AIDS. Perhaps those who hold the
gay community as their primary reference group, as compared to those who hold
the Black community as their primary reference group, are more likely to hold
more accepting attitudes towards AIDS.
The positive correlations found between Pre-Encounter scores on the
RIAS-B and the GLIAS suggest a parallel developmental process at the beginning
of racial and sexual identity development, such that those who initially
embrace the assumptions of the dominant U.S. culture might tend to favor
heterosexuality and Whiteness.
However, when triggered by some internal or external event in the
Encounter stage, racial and sexual development might begin to occur
independently and at different rates from one another.
Results
of the study should be considered when designing HIV/AIDS prevention
programs. For instance, more
effective interventions might be designed via considering the racial and sexual
identity development of members of the target audience. These and related implications are
discussed in further detail.
Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are also
presented.